Chapter 5: Roman to Medieval Theatre
Overview of Roman Theatre
You are a citizen of the Roman Empire. You live in Rome, the capital of the empire which is rapidly covering the world (as far as you know it to exist). And you are a wealthy Roman citizen.
You have planned on spending your afternoon enjoying the pleasurable entertainments of the city. As you enter a square near the forum, you are approached by a friendly sort of man who will provide you with the bill of fare for the day’s events.
“Yes, sir,” says he, “you’ve come to the right place today. I can direct you to any number of specialty events, sir. Just name your preference. There’re dancers dancing and jugglers juggling. Yes, sir. We’ve got tightrope walkers walking, and acrobats . . . acrobatting. The arena has been filled with water today, sir, for a re-enactment of the famous sea battle at Salamis. Over yonder, there’s a trained bear from the northern reaches of the empire. Only this bear is trained to balance balls on his nose. Yes, sir. Would you prefer something more adult entertainment, sir? There’s a gladiatorial contest being waged in the amphitheater to your right. Or a comedy, sir? How about a nice comedy? In the amphitheater to your left, sir, they’re playing a bawdy comedy by Plautus. Yes, sir. Whatever your heart’s desire, we’ve got it in Rome today.”
The Roman Empire, as it spread across the known world, would assimilate cultures, religions, and traditions as it spread. When the Greek empire fell to the Romans, the Roman quickly and easily assimilated the dramas and production techniques of Greek theatre.
The Romans borrowed many ideas and practices from the Greek dramatists. However, Roman theatre had to compete with other events and activities aimed at entertaining the masses. A Roman citizen, looking for an amusing way to spend a day, could choose from a variety of different venues. There was dancing, singing, juggling, and acrobatics (on the milder side of entertainment) and gladiatorial contests and animal baiting (on the more adult side of entertainment). Therefore, Roman playwrights adapted the Greek theatre to be more competitive and profitable in a faster-paced society.
The first permanent theatre in Rome was built in 55 B.C. The Roman government carefully planned communities with a centrally located forum, convenient bath houses, theaters, and amphitheaters. The Romans were the first to build theatres with roofs.
The Roman playwrights developed the use of stock characters for their comedies. In fact, the stock characters became so stylized that specific costumes and colors were associated with each particular group. Slave-characters wore red costumes; courtesan-characters always appeared in yellow. This way, the playwright could develop scripts without having to introduce each character; the audience would recognize the character’s station in society as soon as the actor walked on stage.
From the Roman period, twenty-six (26) comedies and nine (9) tragedies have survived. The surviving comedies were written by Plautus or Terence. All of the surviving tragedies were written by Seneca. The tragedies of Seneca are so graphic in their stage directions that it is possible that they were never intended for actual performance.
Plautus
Titus Maccius Plautus was born in 254 B.C. His name meant “Titus, the Flat-footed Clown.”
It is believed that his first career, as a young man, was as an actor in a small company which performed a variety of scripts, including Greek comedies (which have since been lost). He later joined the military and spent many years in the service of the Roman Empire. It was not until he was in his mid-forties that he began to write for the stage. His knowledge of the Greek plays assisted him with dramatic structure and plot; his knowledge of the Roman culture no doubt assisted him with characters and comic situations with which he embellished the original, Greek stories.
Plautus wrote comedies. His stories were taken from the Greek plays (although the Greek scripts have not survived). His characters were Greek. He even set his plays in Greek cities. However, being Roman, his plays were written in Latin. And, because the Roman audiences wanted more excitement in their entertainments, Plautus modified and adapted the stories into uniquely Roman drama. Twenty of his scripts have survived: The Comedy of Asses, The Merchant, The Braggart Warrior, The Casket, Pot of Gold, Stichus, Pseudolus, Curculio, The Two Bacchides, Casina, Amphitryon, The Captives, Epidicus, The Menaechmi, The Haunted House, The Persian, The Carthaginian, The Rope, Three-Bob Day, and The Churl.
The Menaechmi (or, The Menaechmi Twins) – The chorus enters and explains how two twin brothers were separated while still babes. The eldest twin was named Menaechmus. When the eldest was lost, the younger twin was named Menaechmus in his honor. The eldest twin ended up in Epidamnus, and he has grown into a fine young man, married, and established in the town. The youngest twin has grown up as well, but a belief that his twin brother is still alive somewhere in the world has led him to search, from city to city, for his long-lost brother. Now he arrives in Epidamnus, and he is mistaken almost immediately for his brother. He misinterprets the encounter as madness (or witchcraft since the people all call him by his given name). As long as the encounters turn out to his benefit, he is willing to play along. But he becomes disconcerted and frightened when things start getting out of hand. The two brothers exchange scenes onstage, always just missing each other (one enters the stage almost as the other one exits). Eventually, it is the crafty servant who puts the pieces of the puzzle together, and the twin brothers are finally reunited.
The twenty surviving plays by Plautus demonstrate a wide range of situations and characters. After his death, over 130 plays were attributed to him. It was common practice in his day for veteran playwrights to assist younger playwrights with revisions, and this may have led to the large number of plays being attributed to him, in his honor.
Terence
The Roman playwright, Publius Terentius Afer, was born in 195 or 185 B.C. He was born in Carthage and taken to Rome as a slave. Terence was educated as a slave, and developed a remarkable gift for writing. His master, a Roman senator, set him free. He fell in with a small circle of writers and thinkers, and his colleagues persuaded him to taken up playwrighting.
The Woman of Andros (Andria), Mother-in-Law, Self-Tormentor, Eunuch, Phormio, and The Brothers – All six of Terence’s plays have survived.
The Woman of Andros – Simo is a somewhat wealthy citizen of Athens with a son of marriageable age. He has contracted with his friend, Chremes, for his son to wed Chremes’ daughter. Unfortunately, one of Simo’s neighbors is a prostitute who came to Athens years ago from the Isle of Andros. Simo was aware of his son spending many hours at the prostitute’s home, with his friends, but felt convinced that his son, Pamphilus, did not become involved with her. Then, after the woman from Andros died, during her funeral service, Simo discovered that Pamphilus was actually involved with the woman’s younger sister, Glycerium. Simo wants to confront his son, but wants to wait until Pamphilus refuses to marry Chremes’ daughter. His slave, Davus, learns of Simo’s plans and convinces Pamphilus to agree to the arranged marriage. With Simo’s plans thwarted, he begins preparations for the wedding, only to then be confronted by Chremes, who has also learned of Pamphilus’ involvement with Glycerium and has withdrawn his agreement to the marriage with his daughter. Simo persuades Chremes to agree to the marriage once again, and the comic confusion continues. Eventually, an elderly man arrives from Andros, claiming to be the closest relative of the prostitute. He has come to settle her affairs and return home. When confronted by Simo and Chremes, the old man and Chremes recognize one another. The elderly man tells the story of how Glycerium is not native-born of Andros, but of Athens. The story shocks Chremes; Glycerium is his own, long-lost daughter. Pamphilus is married to Chremes’ daughter, Glycerium, and everyone is happy.
Though born far from Rome, Terence developed a mastery of Latin. His writings would continue to be held up as models of excellent Latin for millennia after his death.
Seneca
Of the ten Roman tragedies which have survived, nine were written by Lucius Annaeus Seneca (c. 4 B.C. – 65 A.D.). All of his plays are based on earlier works by Sophocles and Euripides: Agamemnon, Oedipus, Medea, The Trojan Women, Phaedra, Thyestes, Hercules on Oeta, The Mad Hercules, and The Phoenician Women.
Where the earlier Greek playwrights developed well-rounded characters and complex storylines, the plays by Seneca are filled with lengthy passages of rhetoric which more closely resemble public oration than dramatic dialogue. In addition, Seneca’s plays contain a large amount of violence, so much so that many scholars today think that Seneca’s plays were never intended for actual performance.
Oedipus ─ The play is similar to the play by Sophocles. When Tiresias is summoned, he sacrifices a bull and a heifer. Tiresias cannot determine the identity of the murderer. Creon participates in a ceremony where the spirit of Laius is conjured up from Hades. Oedipus is accused. The messenger from Corinth brings news of the death of Polybus, and informs Oedipus that he is not the child of Polybus by Merope. The shepherd is summoned, and he confirms that Oedipus was born of Laius and Jocasta. Oedipus blinds himself, and declares that the guilt of his father’s murder has been paid. Jocasta enters. When she finds that she cannot comfort her son/husband, she takes his sword and kills herself.
Many of the techniques and characteristics of Seneca’s works would be influential later in the Renaissance.
Overview of Medieval Theatre
With the end of the Roman Empire, Roman theatre also faded from the world’s stage. The last record of any performance dates from the sixth century. Europe entered what has been called the Dark Ages.
On the other side of the Dark Ages, the Middle Ages, it was the Christian Church and its power and influence in Europe that resurrected (if you will) theatrical performances. In the tenth century, small sections of dialogue were being added to liturgies to provide explanation and commentary.
Liturgical drama dates from about 970 A.D. Liturgical drama dealt with Biblical events and characters. The population of Europe was almost completely illiterate; the only educated individuals were members of the royalty or the clergy. The masses needed to be educated on Christian doctrine and the Biblical events and narratives on which the doctrine was based. Small plays were inserted into the mass in order to teach.
It was not until around 1200 A.D. that some religious plays began to be performed outside the Church. The plays remained rooted in Christian tradition and doctrines. Mystery plays are those plays which dealt with the stories of the saints and martyrs of Christianity. Morality plays are those plays which dealt with spiritual trials and temptations of common people. One such morality play, by an anonymous author, is Everyman.
Everyman – God recognizes that mankind has departed from the teachings and doctrines of his Church, and he sends Death to call Everyman to give an accounting of his life. Everyman attempts to find help and comfort from Fellowship, Kindred, and Cousin, but they quickly abandon him when they learn of the journey and accounting he must make. Everyman turns to his riches, Goods, but is informed that the very function of riches is to blind men and lead them away from God’s truth. Everyman turns to his Good Deeds, but Good Deeds is too weak to stand, let alone accompany Everyman on the journey he must make. Good Deeds, however, calls upon Knowledge to help and assist Everyman. Knowledge leads Everyman to Confession. Once Everyman has confessed his sins, Good Deeds is restored to health. Additional characters are called upon but, in the end, only Good Deeds is willing to descend with Everyman into the grave.
The morality play, Everyman, was written in the fifteenth century, and it stands as an example of the allegorical plays used by the Christian Church to teach and lead their members.
The drama of medieval Europe aimed at teaching Christian doctrine. There was no concern for historical accuracy in the performances. And in the dramas themselves, there was little concern for consistency of time or place.
Initially, performances given during the Middle Ages took place within the church buildings and under Church authority. Slowly, productions began to move outside the church buildings, though the plays continued to be based on religious themes.
In the late Middle Ages, theatrical productions outside of the Church became quite common. These productions grew in size and complexity. In fact, these productions would often take several days to complete the performance. Given the size and complexity of these productions, the involvement and participation of the government, the citizenry, and the church was required.
Slowly, these outdoor religious performances shifted from Latin to the vernacular (the local language). Most of these productions were given in spring and summer months when the weather was most favorable for outdoor performances. Also, the feast of Corpus Christi, started by Pope Urban IV in 1264, provided a centralization of these outdoor, cycle plays (much like the City Dionysus festival of ancient Greece).
Corpus Christi celebrated the redemptive power of the body and blood of Jesus, represented in the Church by the bread and the wine. Because Jesus is central to Christianity, Corpus Christi provided an opportunity for plays to range the entire scope of Biblical events. Corpus Christi cycle plays could begin with creation and continue through to the final destruction of the world.
These productions are referred to as cycle plays because the production itself was made up of numerous short plays based upon various Biblical stories and events. In preparation for the festival, numerous staging platforms would be situated throughout the town. The production would be performed with wheeled carts, one cart providing a set backing for each play, moving from stationary platform to stationary platform.
For example, the first cart would have a setting representing the creation of human beings (the Garden of Eden). The first playlet would deal with the creation story. The cart would pull up to the first stationary platform, and the short playlet would be performed with actors representing God, Adam, Eve, and the Serpent. When the playlet was completed, the cart would move on to the next stationary platform (with another audience waiting) and the playlet would be performed again. Meanwhile, the cart bearing the second playlet would pull up to the first stationary platform, and the second playlet would be performed.
The result was a huge production, with performances being given simultaneously at different locations throughout the town. Once the creation story playlet had completed the cycle, the actors would probably have then moved on to perform on another playlet later in the cycle. The cart itself may have been quickly converted to another setting and taken through the town again.
Such cycle plays are extremely episodic, and there was no attempt made to tie the different short plays together into a single theme. The plays, though written in the vernacular (the common language of the people), were still written in verse. And the settings used for the performances were merely suggestions of the locations presented. The opening lines of each playlet would identify the location for the audience.
Hrosvitha
Hrosvitha was a nun in Germany in the tenth century. She was educated in Latin, and was intrigued (in particular) with the Roman comedies of Terence. She was inspired to write similar comedies, but with strong Christian messages. She is noteworthy as the first female playwright in historical record. Like Terence, she wrote six plays: Paphnutius, Dulcitius, Gallicanus, Abraham, Callimachus, and Sapientia.
Sapientia – The play follows the arrest and torture of Sapientia’s three daughters: Faith, Hope, and Charity. They are perceived as threats to the reign of the Emperor Hadrian. Throughout their torture, they are miraculously untroubled by pain. Eventually, Hadrian orders that the three girls be beheaded. The play closes with Sapientia’s eventual death, where she joins her daughters in Paradise.
Hrosvitha wrote her plays in Latin, in a prose that somewhat resembles verse and rhyme. There is no indication in the historical record that any of her plays were performed during her lifetime. The six plays were published in a single volume in the early 1500’s and were influential in Renaissance dramatic literature.